diff --git a/auth/iam.go b/auth/iam.go
index d8ec96dc..20ce62a8 100644
--- a/auth/iam.go
+++ b/auth/iam.go
@@ -212,6 +212,7 @@ type Opts struct {
 	StandaloneDefaultUserID     int
 	StandaloneDefaultGroupID    int
 	StandaloneDefaultProjectID  int
+	StandaloneRegion            string
 }
 
 func New(o *Opts) (IAMService, error) {
@@ -231,6 +232,7 @@ func New(o *Opts) (IAMService, error) {
 			DefaultUserID:    o.StandaloneDefaultUserID,
 			DefaultGroupID:   o.StandaloneDefaultGroupID,
 			DefaultProjectID: o.StandaloneDefaultProjectID,
+			Region:           o.StandaloneRegion,
 		})
 		if err != nil {
 			return nil, err
diff --git a/auth/iam_standalone.go b/auth/iam_standalone.go
index a177c336..cb2cee3c 100644
--- a/auth/iam_standalone.go
+++ b/auth/iam_standalone.go
@@ -99,6 +99,13 @@ type IAMServiceStandaloneConfig struct {
 	DefaultUserID    int
 	DefaultGroupID   int
 	DefaultProjectID int
+	// Region is the gateway's own configured region, reported to the IAM
+	// service as the region an S3 request was made in when it records the
+	// caller's last-used metadata. It is taken from configuration rather
+	// than from the request's credential scope on purpose: the scope is
+	// attacker-controlled until the signature is verified. Empty disables
+	// the reporting rather than storing a blank region.
+	Region string
 }
 
 // IAMServiceStandalone is the S3 gateway's client for a standalone IAM
@@ -463,6 +470,9 @@ func (s *IAMServiceStandalone) EvaluatePolicy(access, sessionToken string, actio
 		Actions:      actionStrs,
 		Resources:    resources,
 		Condition:    condition,
+		// Reported for last-used metadata only; see EvaluatePolicyRequest.
+		Region:  s.cfg.Region,
+		Service: sigv4auth.ServiceS3,
 	}, &resp)
 	if err != nil {
 		return PolicyEvaluation{}, err
diff --git a/embedgw/embedgw.go b/embedgw/embedgw.go
index 4d2ec083..1a0c72a6 100644
--- a/embedgw/embedgw.go
+++ b/embedgw/embedgw.go
@@ -753,6 +753,7 @@ func RunVersityGW(ctx context.Context, be backend.Backend, cfg *Config) error {
 			StandaloneDefaultUserID:     cfg.StandaloneDefaultUserID,
 			StandaloneDefaultGroupID:    cfg.StandaloneDefaultGroupID,
 			StandaloneDefaultProjectID:  cfg.StandaloneDefaultProjectID,
+			StandaloneRegion:            cfg.Region,
 		})
 		if err != nil {
 			return fmt.Errorf("setup iam: %w", err)
diff --git a/iamapi/controller_test.go b/iamapi/controller_test.go
index 6a935f10..08198c5c 100644
--- a/iamapi/controller_test.go
+++ b/iamapi/controller_test.go
@@ -1469,6 +1469,108 @@ func TestIAMApiControllerRoleLifecycle(t *testing.T) {
 	requireIAMError(t, missing, http.StatusNotFound, "Sender", "NoSuchEntity", "The role with name my-role cannot be found.")
 }
 
+// TestIAMApiControllerRoleLastUsed covers the RoleLastUsed lifecycle GetRole
+// reports: a role nobody has assumed carries the empty element, and a
+// request authenticated with one of the role's session credentials records
+// that use — the role's counterpart to an access key's GetAccessKeyLastUsed
+// tracking. GetCallerIdentity is the request here because it needs no
+// policy of its own, so this exercises the auth middleware's recording
+// independently of what the role is allowed to do.
+func TestIAMApiControllerRoleLastUsed(t *testing.T) {
+	server := newIAMControllerTestServer(t)
+	session := createTestSession(t, server, "tracked-role",
+		`{"Version":"2012-10-17","Statement":[{"Effect":"Allow","Action":"iam:GetUser","Resource":"*"}]}`, "")
+
+	if lastUsed := getRoleLastUsed(t, server, "tracked-role"); lastUsed == nil || lastUsed.LastUsedDate != nil || lastUsed.Region != "" {
+		t.Fatalf("RoleLastUsed before any use = %#v, want the empty element", lastUsed)
+	}
+
+	before := time.Now().UTC().Add(-time.Second)
+	resp := doSignedSTSAction(t, server, session.AccessKeyId, session.SecretAccessKey, session.SessionToken,
+		url.Values{"Action": {"GetCallerIdentity"}})
+	if resp.StatusCode != http.StatusOK {
+		t.Fatalf("GetCallerIdentity status = %d, body=%s", resp.StatusCode, readBody(t, resp))
+	}
+
+	lastUsed := getRoleLastUsed(t, server, "tracked-role")
+	if lastUsed == nil || lastUsed.LastUsedDate == nil {
+		t.Fatalf("RoleLastUsed after a session-authenticated request = %#v, want a recorded date", lastUsed)
+	}
+	if lastUsed.LastUsedDate.Before(before) {
+		t.Fatalf("RoleLastUsed.LastUsedDate = %v, want at or after %v", lastUsed.LastUsedDate, before)
+	}
+	if lastUsed.Region != iammiddleware.SigningRegion {
+		t.Fatalf("RoleLastUsed.Region = %q, want %q", lastUsed.Region, iammiddleware.SigningRegion)
+	}
+
+	// ListRoles omits RoleLastUsed entirely, used or not.
+	list := doIAMAction(t, server, url.Values{"Action": {"ListRoles"}})
+	var listOut iamtypes.ListRolesResponse
+	unmarshalXML(t, readBody(t, list), &listOut)
+	if len(listOut.Result.Roles.Members) != 1 || listOut.Result.Roles.Members[0].RoleLastUsed != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("ListRoles members = %#v, want the used role with no RoleLastUsed", listOut.Result.Roles.Members)
+	}
+}
+
+// TestIAMApiControllerRoleLastUsedNotRecordedForReplacedRole confirms a
+// session that outlived its role does not attribute its own use to a
+// same-named replacement role: the session still authenticates (STS
+// credentials are self-contained), but the new role — which it was never
+// minted against — must still report as never used.
+func TestIAMApiControllerRoleLastUsedNotRecordedForReplacedRole(t *testing.T) {
+	server := newIAMControllerTestServer(t)
+	createTestRoleForTrust(t, server, "recreated-role", validTrustPolicy)
+
+	get := doIAMAction(t, server, url.Values{"Action": {"GetRole"}, "RoleName": {"recreated-role"}})
+	var getOut iamtypes.GetRoleResponse
+	unmarshalXML(t, readBody(t, get), &getOut)
+
+	now := time.Now().UTC()
+	session := iamtypes.Session{
+		AccessKeyId:     "ASIAtESTREPLACEDROLE1",
+		SecretAccessKey: "sessionsecret",
+		SessionToken:    "sessiontoken",
+		RoleArn:         getOut.Result.Role.Arn,
+		RoleName:        getOut.Result.Role.RoleName,
+		RoleID:          getOut.Result.Role.RoleID,
+		RoleSessionName: "my-session",
+		CreateDate:      now,
+		Expiration:      now.Add(time.Hour),
+	}
+	if _, err := server.store.CreateSession(context.Background(), session); err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("CreateSession: %v", err)
+	}
+
+	if resp := doIAMAction(t, server, url.Values{"Action": {"DeleteRole"}, "RoleName": {"recreated-role"}}); resp.StatusCode != http.StatusOK {
+		t.Fatalf("DeleteRole status = %d, body=%s", resp.StatusCode, readBody(t, resp))
+	}
+	createTestRoleForTrust(t, server, "recreated-role", validTrustPolicy)
+
+	resp := doSignedSTSAction(t, server, session.AccessKeyId, session.SecretAccessKey, session.SessionToken,
+		url.Values{"Action": {"GetCallerIdentity"}})
+	if resp.StatusCode != http.StatusOK {
+		t.Fatalf("GetCallerIdentity status = %d, body=%s", resp.StatusCode, readBody(t, resp))
+	}
+
+	if lastUsed := getRoleLastUsed(t, server, "recreated-role"); lastUsed == nil || lastUsed.LastUsedDate != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("replacement role RoleLastUsed = %#v, want the empty element", lastUsed)
+	}
+}
+
+func getRoleLastUsed(t *testing.T, server *IAMApiServer, roleName string) *iamtypes.RoleLastUsed {
+	t.Helper()
+	resp := doIAMAction(t, server, url.Values{"Action": {"GetRole"}, "RoleName": {roleName}})
+	if resp.StatusCode != http.StatusOK {
+		t.Fatalf("GetRole status = %d, body=%s", resp.StatusCode, readBody(t, resp))
+	}
+	var out iamtypes.GetRoleResponse
+	unmarshalXML(t, readBody(t, resp), &out)
+	if out.Result.Role == nil {
+		t.Fatal("GetRole returned no role")
+	}
+	return out.Result.Role.RoleLastUsed
+}
+
 func TestIAMApiControllerRoleTagLifecycle(t *testing.T) {
 	server := newIAMControllerTestServer(t)
 	createTestRoleForTrust(t, server, "my-role", validTrustPolicy)
diff --git a/iamapi/internal/iammiddleware/auth.go b/iamapi/internal/iammiddleware/auth.go
index 91834588..1161380c 100644
--- a/iamapi/internal/iammiddleware/auth.go
+++ b/iamapi/internal/iammiddleware/auth.go
@@ -122,6 +122,16 @@ func VerifyIAMAuth(service string, root *RootCredentials, store iamutil.Identity
 				debuglogger.Logf("failed to record access key last-used metadata for %q: %v", authData.Access, err)
 			}
 		}
+		// The same, for the role a session credential authenticated as: this
+		// is what GetRole reports as RoleLastUsed. identity.Role is set only
+		// when the session's role still exists *and* is still the same role
+		// the session was minted against, so a session outliving its role
+		// records nothing rather than attributing its use to a same-named replacement.
+		if identity.Role != nil {
+			if err := store.RecordRoleUsage(ctx.Context(), identity.Role.RoleName, SigningRegion, time.Now().UTC()); err != nil {
+				debuglogger.Logf("failed to record role last-used metadata for %q: %v", identity.Role.RoleName, err)
+			}
+		}
 		return nil
 	}
 }
diff --git a/iamapi/internal/iamutil/identity.go b/iamapi/internal/iamutil/identity.go
index b5ac8275..92a4d693 100644
--- a/iamapi/internal/iamutil/identity.go
+++ b/iamapi/internal/iamutil/identity.go
@@ -46,6 +46,7 @@ type IdentityStore interface {
 	GetUser(ctx context.Context, username string) (*types.User, error)
 	GetOIDCProvider(ctx context.Context, arn string) (*types.OIDCProvider, error)
 	RecordAccessKeyUsage(ctx context.Context, accessKeyID, service, region string, when time.Time) error
+	RecordRoleUsage(ctx context.Context, roleName, region string, when time.Time) error
 }
 
 // ResolveSessionByToken resolves a temporary (ASIA…) access key to the
diff --git a/iamapi/private/handlers.go b/iamapi/private/handlers.go
index d4273f5c..641e8bfa 100644
--- a/iamapi/private/handlers.go
+++ b/iamapi/private/handlers.go
@@ -17,8 +17,10 @@ import (
 	"encoding/json"
 	"maps"
 	"strings"
+	"time"
 
 	"github.com/gofiber/fiber/v3"
+	"github.com/versity/versitygw/debuglogger"
 	"github.com/versity/versitygw/iamapi/internal/iammiddleware"
 	"github.com/versity/versitygw/iamapi/policy"
 	"github.com/versity/versitygw/iamapi/types"
@@ -55,6 +57,42 @@ func (p *PrivateAPI) handleDeriveSigningKey(ctx fiber.Ctx) error {
 	return ctx.JSON(DeriveSigningKeyResponse{DerivedKey: derivedKey})
 }
 
+// recordDataPlaneUsage records this S3 request as a use of the credential
+// that made it — an access key's GetAccessKeyLastUsed metadata, a session's
+// role's RoleLastUsed, or both for a session (its role is what AWS reports,
+// and a session has no long-term key of its own). It is the data-plane
+// counterpart of what iammiddleware.VerifyIAMAuth records for the IAM/STS
+// control plane, and is deliberately here rather than on derive-signing-key:
+// this endpoint is only reached once the gateway has verified the request's
+// signature, so an unauthenticated caller who merely knows an access key id
+// cannot refresh — or, since it would supply the credential scope, poison —
+// another identity's last-used record.
+//
+// Everything about it is best-effort: failures are logged and dropped, and a
+// gateway too old to send Region/Service records nothing at all rather than
+// storing a blank service or region.
+func (p *PrivateAPI) recordDataPlaneUsage(ctx fiber.Ctx, identity types.Identity, req EvaluatePolicyRequest) {
+	if req.Region == "" || req.Service == "" {
+		return
+	}
+
+	now := time.Now().UTC()
+	if identity.User != nil {
+		if err := p.store.RecordAccessKeyUsage(ctx.Context(), req.AccessKeyID, req.Service, req.Region, now); err != nil {
+			debuglogger.Logf("failed to record access key last-used metadata for %q: %v", req.AccessKeyID, err)
+		}
+	}
+	// identity.Role is set only when the session's role still exists and is
+	// still the one the session was minted against, so a session outliving
+	// its role records nothing rather than attributing its use to a
+	// same-named replacement — same rule as the control plane.
+	if identity.Role != nil {
+		if err := p.store.RecordRoleUsage(ctx.Context(), identity.Role.RoleName, req.Region, now); err != nil {
+			debuglogger.Logf("failed to record role last-used metadata for %q: %v", identity.Role.RoleName, err)
+		}
+	}
+}
+
 // handleResolveIdentity answers "does this access key exist, and what
 // principal is it" for a batch of access key ids, returning no credential
 // material at all — see ResolveIdentityResponse for why that is what makes
@@ -101,6 +139,8 @@ func (p *PrivateAPI) handleEvaluatePolicy(ctx fiber.Ctx) error {
 		return mapResolveError(err)
 	}
 
+	p.recordDataPlaneUsage(ctx, *identity, req)
+
 	condition := conditionContextFor(*identity, req.Condition)
 
 	decisions := make([][]string, len(req.Resources))
diff --git a/iamapi/private/private_test.go b/iamapi/private/private_test.go
index 96ce399a..cff9d827 100644
--- a/iamapi/private/private_test.go
+++ b/iamapi/private/private_test.go
@@ -812,6 +812,158 @@ func TestParseProtocolVersion(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
+// TestEvaluatePolicyRecordsDataPlaneUsage covers the S3 side of last-used
+// tracking: authorizing a data-plane request records it against the
+// credential that made it — a user's access key (with the "s3" service name
+// its control-plane counterpart could never produce) and, for a session, the
+// role it assumed.
+func TestEvaluatePolicyRecordsDataPlaneUsage(t *testing.T) {
+	p, store := newTestServer(t)
+	ctx := context.Background()
+	const allowGet = `{"Version":"2012-10-17","Statement":[{"Effect":"Allow","Action":"s3:GetObject","Resource":"*"}]}`
+
+	createTestUser(t, store, "nina", "AKIDNINA", "ninasecret", allowGet)
+	role := createTestRole(t, store, "reader", allowGet)
+	session := createTestSessionForRole(t, store, role, "ASIASESSION1", "sessionsecret", "sessiontoken", "")
+
+	before := time.Now().UTC().Add(-time.Second)
+
+	evaluateAs(t, p, EvaluatePolicyRequest{
+		AccessKeyID: "AKIDNINA",
+		Actions:     []string{"s3:GetObject"},
+		Resources:   []string{"arn:aws:s3:::bucket/key"},
+		Region:      "us-west-2",
+		Service:     "s3",
+	})
+
+	lastUsed, err := store.GetAccessKeyLastUsed(ctx, "AKIDNINA")
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("GetAccessKeyLastUsed: %v", err)
+	}
+	if lastUsed.ServiceName != "s3" || lastUsed.Region != "us-west-2" {
+		t.Fatalf("access key last used = %s/%s, want s3/us-west-2", lastUsed.ServiceName, lastUsed.Region)
+	}
+	if lastUsed.LastUsedDate.Before(before) {
+		t.Fatalf("access key LastUsedDate = %v, want at or after %v", lastUsed.LastUsedDate, before)
+	}
+
+	evaluateAs(t, p, EvaluatePolicyRequest{
+		AccessKeyID:  session.AccessKeyId,
+		SessionToken: session.SessionToken,
+		Actions:      []string{"s3:GetObject"},
+		Resources:    []string{"arn:aws:s3:::bucket/key"},
+		Region:       "us-west-2",
+		Service:      "s3",
+	})
+
+	stored, err := store.GetRole(ctx, "reader")
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("GetRole: %v", err)
+	}
+	if stored.RoleLastUsed == nil || stored.RoleLastUsed.LastUsedDate == nil {
+		t.Fatalf("RoleLastUsed = %#v, want a recorded date", stored.RoleLastUsed)
+	}
+	if stored.RoleLastUsed.Region != "us-west-2" {
+		t.Fatalf("RoleLastUsed.Region = %q, want us-west-2", stored.RoleLastUsed.Region)
+	}
+	if stored.RoleLastUsed.LastUsedDate.Before(before) {
+		t.Fatalf("RoleLastUsed.LastUsedDate = %v, want at or after %v", stored.RoleLastUsed.LastUsedDate, before)
+	}
+}
+
+// TestEvaluatePolicyWithoutRegionRecordsNothing covers a gateway too old to
+// send Region/Service: the request must still authorize normally, and must
+// not store a blank service or region as if it were real data.
+func TestEvaluatePolicyWithoutRegionRecordsNothing(t *testing.T) {
+	p, store := newTestServer(t)
+	createTestUser(t, store, "nina", "AKIDNINA", "ninasecret",
+		`{"Version":"2012-10-17","Statement":[{"Effect":"Allow","Action":"s3:GetObject","Resource":"*"}]}`)
+
+	out := evaluateAs(t, p, EvaluatePolicyRequest{
+		AccessKeyID: "AKIDNINA",
+		Actions:     []string{"s3:GetObject"},
+		Resources:   []string{"arn:aws:s3:::bucket/key"},
+	})
+	if len(out.Decisions) != 1 || out.Decisions[0][0] != DecisionAllow {
+		t.Fatalf("Decisions = %v, want [[allow]] — authorization must not depend on the reporting fields", out.Decisions)
+	}
+
+	lastUsed, err := store.GetAccessKeyLastUsed(context.Background(), "AKIDNINA")
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("GetAccessKeyLastUsed: %v", err)
+	}
+	if !lastUsed.LastUsedDate.IsZero() || lastUsed.ServiceName != "" || lastUsed.Region != "" {
+		t.Fatalf("last used = %#v, want nothing recorded", lastUsed)
+	}
+}
+
+// TestEvaluatePolicyCoalescesRepeatedUsage confirms the write-coalescing
+// that makes per-request recording affordable: a second request in the same
+// region and service leaves the stored timestamp alone, while a request from
+// a different region is written through immediately, since that is the part
+// an operator reads to see what a credential is being used for.
+func TestEvaluatePolicyCoalescesRepeatedUsage(t *testing.T) {
+	p, store := newTestServer(t)
+	ctx := context.Background()
+	createTestUser(t, store, "nina", "AKIDNINA", "ninasecret",
+		`{"Version":"2012-10-17","Statement":[{"Effect":"Allow","Action":"s3:GetObject","Resource":"*"}]}`)
+
+	req := EvaluatePolicyRequest{
+		AccessKeyID: "AKIDNINA",
+		Actions:     []string{"s3:GetObject"},
+		Resources:   []string{"arn:aws:s3:::bucket/key"},
+		Region:      "us-west-2",
+		Service:     "s3",
+	}
+
+	evaluateAs(t, p, req)
+	first, err := store.GetAccessKeyLastUsed(ctx, "AKIDNINA")
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("GetAccessKeyLastUsed: %v", err)
+	}
+
+	evaluateAs(t, p, req)
+	second, err := store.GetAccessKeyLastUsed(ctx, "AKIDNINA")
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("GetAccessKeyLastUsed: %v", err)
+	}
+	if !second.LastUsedDate.Equal(first.LastUsedDate) {
+		t.Fatalf("LastUsedDate = %v after a repeat request, want it coalesced to %v", second.LastUsedDate, first.LastUsedDate)
+	}
+
+	req.Region = "eu-west-1"
+	evaluateAs(t, p, req)
+	moved, err := store.GetAccessKeyLastUsed(ctx, "AKIDNINA")
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("GetAccessKeyLastUsed: %v", err)
+	}
+	if moved.Region != "eu-west-1" || !moved.LastUsedDate.After(first.LastUsedDate) {
+		t.Fatalf("last used = %s at %v, want eu-west-1 written through after %v", moved.Region, moved.LastUsedDate, first.LastUsedDate)
+	}
+}
+
+// evaluateAs posts one evaluate-policy request as root and returns the
+// decoded response, failing the test on any non-200.
+func evaluateAs(t *testing.T, p *PrivateAPI, req EvaluatePolicyRequest) EvaluatePolicyResponse {
+	t.Helper()
+
+	body, err := json.Marshal(req)
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("marshal request: %v", err)
+	}
+	resp := doPrivateRequest(t, p, http.MethodPost, EvaluatePath, testRoot.Access, testRoot.Secret, body)
+	raw := readBody(t, resp)
+	if resp.StatusCode != http.StatusOK {
+		t.Fatalf("evaluate-policy status = %d, body=%s", resp.StatusCode, raw)
+	}
+
+	var out EvaluatePolicyResponse
+	if err := json.Unmarshal([]byte(raw), &out); err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("unmarshal %s: %v", raw, err)
+	}
+	return out
+}
+
 // createTestRole creates a role with an optional inline permission policy
 // directly against store, the same way createTestUser bypasses the
 // control-plane API. Arn and RoleID are set explicitly because
diff --git a/iamapi/private/types.go b/iamapi/private/types.go
index 4a1cf298..b40d605e 100644
--- a/iamapi/private/types.go
+++ b/iamapi/private/types.go
@@ -35,13 +35,24 @@ type DeriveSigningKeyResponse struct {
 	DerivedKey []byte `json:"derivedKey"`
 }
 
-// EvaluatePolicyRequest is the evaluate-policy request body
+// EvaluatePolicyRequest is the evaluate-policy request body.
+//
+// Region and Service describe the data-plane request being authorized, and
+// exist only so the identity's last-used metadata (GetAccessKeyLastUsed,
+// GetRole's RoleLastUsed) can record S3 use. They are recorded rather than
+// evaluated — nothing about the authorization decision depends on them —
+// and they are the gateway's own configured region and a fixed "s3", never
+// anything a client supplied: the credential scope in a request's
+// Authorization header is attacker-controlled until the signature is
+// verified, and this endpoint is the first one reached after that.
 type EvaluatePolicyRequest struct {
 	AccessKeyID  string              `json:"accessKeyId"`
 	SessionToken string              `json:"sessionToken,omitempty"`
 	Actions      []string            `json:"actions"`
 	Resources    []string            `json:"resources"`
 	Condition    map[string][]string `json:"condition,omitempty"`
+	Region       string              `json:"region,omitempty"`
+	Service      string              `json:"service,omitempty"`
 }
 
 // ResolveIdentityRequest asks whether each access key id exists and what
diff --git a/iamapi/storage/common.go b/iamapi/storage/common.go
index a34386b4..914f11e0 100644
--- a/iamapi/storage/common.go
+++ b/iamapi/storage/common.go
@@ -278,6 +278,47 @@ func paginateTags(tags []types.Tag, marker string, maxItems int32, keyCase iamut
 	return out
 }
 
+// UsageRecordCoalesceWindow is how long a last-used record is left alone
+// after a write that already reported the same service and region. Every
+// authenticated S3 data-plane request records a use, so without this the
+// internal storer would rewrite the whole IAM file (twice — it keeps a
+// backup) on every GET, and the Vault storer would issue a read-modify-write
+// per request. Real IAM's own last-used data is coarse for the same reason,
+// so nothing observable is lost.
+//
+// A change of service or region is never coalesced: that is the part of the
+// record an operator reads to answer "what is this credential being used
+// for", and it must be able to change the moment the answer does.
+const UsageRecordCoalesceWindow = time.Minute
+
+// shouldRecordUsage reports whether a last-used update is worth the write.
+// prev/prevService/prevRegion describe what is already stored — a zero prev
+// meaning nothing is — and service/region/when the use being recorded. Roles
+// have no service dimension and pass "" for both service arguments.
+func shouldRecordUsage(prev time.Time, prevService, prevRegion, service, region string, when time.Time) bool {
+	if prev.IsZero() || prevService != service || prevRegion != region {
+		return true
+	}
+	// A clock that moved backwards (or a racing writer that already stored a
+	// later use) leaves prev in the future: keep the newer record rather
+	// than replacing it with this older one.
+	return when.Sub(prev) >= UsageRecordCoalesceWindow
+}
+
+// roleLastUsedRecord unpacks role's stored last-used values for
+// shouldRecordUsage, reading a missing element or a missing date as never
+// used.
+func roleLastUsedRecord(role types.Role) (time.Time, string) {
+	if role.RoleLastUsed == nil {
+		return time.Time{}, ""
+	}
+	var when time.Time
+	if role.RoleLastUsed.LastUsedDate != nil {
+		when = *role.RoleLastUsed.LastUsedDate
+	}
+	return when, role.RoleLastUsed.Region
+}
+
 func unwrapAPIError(err error) error {
 	var apiErr iamerr.APIError
 	if errors.As(err, &apiErr) {
diff --git a/iamapi/storage/internal.go b/iamapi/storage/internal.go
index 3f68e1f7..b786e551 100644
--- a/iamapi/storage/internal.go
+++ b/iamapi/storage/internal.go
@@ -523,6 +523,28 @@ func (s *InternalStore) DeleteAccessKey(_ context.Context, username, accessKeyID
 	return unwrapAPIError(err)
 }
 
+// lookupAccessKey resolves accessKeyID to its stored entry and owning user
+// name through the access key index, reporting NoSuchEntity for a key that
+// resolves to nothing at any step.
+func lookupAccessKey(conf iamConfig, accessKeyID string) (types.AccessKeyEntry, string, error) {
+	username, ok := conf.AccessKeyIndex[accessKeyID]
+	if !ok {
+		return types.AccessKeyEntry{}, "", iamerr.NoSuchEntityAccessKey(accessKeyID)
+	}
+	user, ok := conf.Users[username]
+	if !ok {
+		return types.AccessKeyEntry{}, "", iamerr.NoSuchEntityAccessKey(accessKeyID)
+	}
+
+	for _, key := range user.AccessKeys {
+		if key.AccessKeyId == accessKeyID {
+			return key, username, nil
+		}
+	}
+
+	return types.AccessKeyEntry{}, "", iamerr.NoSuchEntityAccessKey(accessKeyID)
+}
+
 func (s *InternalStore) GetAccessKeyLastUsed(_ context.Context, accessKeyID string) (*GetAccessKeyLastUsedOutput, error) {
 	s.RLock()
 	defer s.RUnlock()
@@ -532,63 +554,61 @@ func (s *InternalStore) GetAccessKeyLastUsed(_ context.Context, accessKeyID stri
 		return nil, err
 	}
 
-	username, ok := conf.AccessKeyIndex[accessKeyID]
-	if !ok {
-		return nil, iamerr.NoSuchEntityAccessKey(accessKeyID)
-	}
-	user, ok := conf.Users[username]
-	if !ok {
-		return nil, iamerr.NoSuchEntityAccessKey(accessKeyID)
+	key, username, err := lookupAccessKey(conf, accessKeyID)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
 	}
 
-	for _, key := range user.AccessKeys {
-		if key.AccessKeyId == accessKeyID {
-			return &GetAccessKeyLastUsedOutput{
-				UserName:     username,
-				LastUsedDate: key.LastUsedDate,
-				ServiceName:  key.LastUsedService,
-				Region:       key.LastUsedRegion,
-			}, nil
-		}
-	}
-
-	return nil, iamerr.NoSuchEntityAccessKey(accessKeyID)
+	return &GetAccessKeyLastUsedOutput{
+		UserName:     username,
+		LastUsedDate: key.LastUsedDate,
+		ServiceName:  key.LastUsedService,
+		Region:       key.LastUsedRegion,
+	}, nil
 }
 
+// RecordAccessKeyUsage rewrites the whole IAM file, so it first reads the
+// stored record and returns without writing anything when the update would
+// be redundant — a read per request instead of a file rewrite per request,
+// which is what makes recording every S3 data-plane request affordable here.
 func (s *InternalStore) RecordAccessKeyUsage(_ context.Context, accessKeyID, service, region string, when time.Time) error {
 	s.Lock()
 	defer s.Unlock()
 
-	err := s.engine.StoreIAM(func(data []byte) ([]byte, error) {
+	conf, err := s.engine.GetIAM()
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	key, _, err := lookupAccessKey(conf, accessKeyID)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	if !shouldRecordUsage(key.LastUsedDate, key.LastUsedService, key.LastUsedRegion, service, region, when) {
+		return nil
+	}
+
+	err = s.engine.StoreIAM(func(data []byte) ([]byte, error) {
 		conf, err := s.engine.ParseIAM(data)
 		if err != nil {
 			return nil, err
 		}
 
-		username, ok := conf.AccessKeyIndex[accessKeyID]
-		if !ok {
-			return nil, iamerr.NoSuchEntityAccessKey(accessKeyID)
-		}
-		user, ok := conf.Users[username]
-		if !ok {
-			return nil, iamerr.NoSuchEntityAccessKey(accessKeyID)
+		_, username, err := lookupAccessKey(conf, accessKeyID)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, err
 		}
 
-		found := false
+		user := conf.Users[username]
 		for i, key := range user.AccessKeys {
 			if key.AccessKeyId == accessKeyID {
 				user.AccessKeys[i].LastUsedDate = when
 				user.AccessKeys[i].LastUsedService = service
 				user.AccessKeys[i].LastUsedRegion = region
-				found = true
 				break
 			}
 		}
-		if !found {
-			return nil, iamerr.NoSuchEntityAccessKey(accessKeyID)
-		}
-
 		conf.Users[username] = user
+
 		return json.Marshal(conf)
 	})
 	return unwrapAPIError(err)
@@ -957,6 +977,48 @@ func (s *InternalStore) UpdateAssumeRolePolicy(_ context.Context, input UpdateAs
 	return cloneRole(updated), nil
 }
 
+// RecordRoleUsage is RecordAccessKeyUsage's role counterpart, including its
+// read-first check: a redundant update writes nothing at all, and an update
+// worth keeping rewrites the whole IAM file.
+func (s *InternalStore) RecordRoleUsage(_ context.Context, roleName, region string, when time.Time) error {
+	s.Lock()
+	defer s.Unlock()
+
+	conf, err := s.engine.GetIAM()
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	_, role, ok := lookupRole(conf, roleName)
+	if !ok {
+		return iamerr.NoSuchEntityRole(roleName)
+	}
+	prev, prevRegion := roleLastUsedRecord(role)
+	if !shouldRecordUsage(prev, "", prevRegion, "", region, when) {
+		return nil
+	}
+
+	err = s.engine.StoreIAM(func(data []byte) ([]byte, error) {
+		conf, err := s.engine.ParseIAM(data)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, err
+		}
+
+		canonical, role, ok := lookupRole(conf, roleName)
+		if !ok {
+			return nil, iamerr.NoSuchEntityRole(roleName)
+		}
+
+		role.RoleLastUsed = &types.RoleLastUsed{
+			LastUsedDate: &when,
+			Region:       region,
+		}
+		conf.Roles[canonical] = role
+
+		return json.Marshal(conf)
+	})
+	return unwrapAPIError(err)
+}
+
 func (s *InternalStore) TagRole(_ context.Context, roleName string, tags []types.Tag) error {
 	return s.updateRoleTags(roleName, func(role *types.Role) error {
 		merged, err := mergeTags(role.Tags, tags, iamutil.TagKeysFolded)
@@ -1183,6 +1245,11 @@ func cloneRole(role types.Role) *types.Role {
 	cloned := role
 	cloned.Tags = slices.Clone(role.Tags)
 	cloned.Policies.Inline = slices.Clone(role.Policies.Inline)
+	if role.RoleLastUsed != nil {
+		lastUsed := *role.RoleLastUsed
+		cloned.RoleLastUsed = &lastUsed
+	}
+	cloned.EnsureRoleLastUsed()
 	return &cloned
 }
 
diff --git a/iamapi/storage/storer.go b/iamapi/storage/storer.go
index 801422e7..ffa88260 100644
--- a/iamapi/storage/storer.go
+++ b/iamapi/storage/storer.go
@@ -58,6 +58,11 @@ type Storer interface {
 	ListRoles(ctx context.Context, input ListRolesInput) (*ListRolesOutput, error)
 	DeleteRole(ctx context.Context, roleName string) error
 	UpdateAssumeRolePolicy(ctx context.Context, input UpdateAssumeRolePolicyInput) (*types.Role, error)
+	// RecordRoleUsage updates roleName's RoleLastUsed metadata (region and
+	// timestamp) to reflect a use of the role at when — GetRole's
+	// counterpart to RecordAccessKeyUsage, and best-effort in exactly the
+	// same way.
+	RecordRoleUsage(ctx context.Context, roleName, region string, when time.Time) error
 
 	TagRole(ctx context.Context, roleName string, tags []types.Tag) error
 	UntagRole(ctx context.Context, roleName string, tagKeys []string) error
diff --git a/iamapi/storage/storer_test.go b/iamapi/storage/storer_test.go
index cbf32af4..381b98b1 100644
--- a/iamapi/storage/storer_test.go
+++ b/iamapi/storage/storer_test.go
@@ -419,6 +419,172 @@ func TestInternalStoreRoleCRUDAndPagination(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
+func TestInternalStoreRecordRoleUsage(t *testing.T) {
+	ctx := context.Background()
+	dir := t.TempDir()
+	store, err := NewInternal(dir)
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("NewInternal: %v", err)
+	}
+
+	role := types.Role{
+		Path:                     "/",
+		RoleName:                 "used-role",
+		RoleID:                   "AROAx5555555555555555",
+		Arn:                      "arn:aws:iam::000000000000:role/used-role",
+		CreateDate:               time.Date(2026, 7, 11, 18, 0, 0, 0, time.UTC),
+		AssumeRolePolicyDocument: `{"Version":"2012-10-17","Statement":[{"Effect":"Allow","Principal":{"AWS":"*"},"Action":"sts:AssumeRole"}]}`,
+	}
+	created, err := store.CreateRole(ctx, role)
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("CreateRole: %v", err)
+	}
+	if created.RoleLastUsed.LastUsedDate != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("CreateRole RoleLastUsed = %#v, want the never-used empty element", created.RoleLastUsed)
+	}
+
+	when := time.Date(2026, 8, 2, 9, 30, 0, 0, time.UTC)
+	if err := store.RecordRoleUsage(ctx, "USED-ROLE", "us-east-1", when); err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("RecordRoleUsage: %v", err)
+	}
+
+	// Reopened from disk, so this also covers the record surviving the
+	// JSON round trip rather than only living in the returned copy.
+	reopened, err := NewInternal(dir)
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("reopen NewInternal: %v", err)
+	}
+	got, err := reopened.GetRole(ctx, "used-role")
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("GetRole: %v", err)
+	}
+	if got.RoleLastUsed == nil || got.RoleLastUsed.LastUsedDate == nil || !got.RoleLastUsed.LastUsedDate.Equal(when) {
+		t.Fatalf("RoleLastUsed = %#v, want LastUsedDate %v", got.RoleLastUsed, when)
+	}
+	if got.RoleLastUsed.Region != "us-east-1" {
+		t.Fatalf("RoleLastUsed.Region = %q, want us-east-1", got.RoleLastUsed.Region)
+	}
+
+	listed, err := reopened.ListRoles(ctx, ListRolesInput{})
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("ListRoles: %v", err)
+	}
+	if len(listed.Roles) != 1 || listed.Roles[0].RoleLastUsed != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("ListRoles = %#v, want the used role with no RoleLastUsed", listed.Roles)
+	}
+
+	if err := store.RecordRoleUsage(ctx, "missing-role", "us-east-1", when); !errors.Is(err, iamerr.NoSuchEntityRole("missing-role")) {
+		t.Fatalf("RecordRoleUsage missing role err = %v, want NoSuchEntity", err)
+	}
+}
+
+func TestShouldRecordUsage(t *testing.T) {
+	base := time.Date(2026, 8, 2, 9, 30, 0, 0, time.UTC)
+
+	for _, tt := range []struct {
+		name                    string
+		prev                    time.Time
+		prevService, prevRegion string
+		service, region         string
+		when                    time.Time
+		want                    bool
+	}{
+		{
+			name: "nothing recorded yet",
+			when: base, service: "s3", region: "us-east-1",
+			want: true,
+		},
+		{
+			name: "same service and region inside the window",
+			prev: base, prevService: "s3", prevRegion: "us-east-1",
+			service: "s3", region: "us-east-1", when: base.Add(UsageRecordCoalesceWindow - time.Second),
+			want: false,
+		},
+		{
+			name: "same service and region past the window",
+			prev: base, prevService: "s3", prevRegion: "us-east-1",
+			service: "s3", region: "us-east-1", when: base.Add(UsageRecordCoalesceWindow),
+			want: true,
+		},
+		{
+			name: "a different service is never coalesced",
+			prev: base, prevService: "iam", prevRegion: "us-east-1",
+			service: "s3", region: "us-east-1", when: base.Add(time.Second),
+			want: true,
+		},
+		{
+			name: "a different region is never coalesced",
+			prev: base, prevService: "s3", prevRegion: "us-east-1",
+			service: "s3", region: "eu-west-1", when: base.Add(time.Second),
+			want: true,
+		},
+		{
+			name: "an older use never replaces a newer record",
+			prev: base, prevService: "s3", prevRegion: "us-east-1",
+			service: "s3", region: "us-east-1", when: base.Add(-time.Hour),
+			want: false,
+		},
+	} {
+		t.Run(tt.name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			got := shouldRecordUsage(tt.prev, tt.prevService, tt.prevRegion, tt.service, tt.region, tt.when)
+			if got != tt.want {
+				t.Errorf("shouldRecordUsage = %v, want %v", got, tt.want)
+			}
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+// TestInternalStoreRecordAccessKeyUsageCoalesces confirms the storer applies
+// shouldRecordUsage rather than rewriting the IAM file on every recorded
+// use, and that a service change still lands immediately.
+func TestInternalStoreRecordAccessKeyUsageCoalesces(t *testing.T) {
+	ctx := context.Background()
+	store, err := NewInternal(t.TempDir())
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("NewInternal: %v", err)
+	}
+
+	if _, err := store.CreateUser(ctx, types.User{UserName: "nina", Path: "/"}); err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("CreateUser: %v", err)
+	}
+	if _, err := store.CreateAccessKey(ctx, CreateAccessKeyInput{
+		UserName: "nina", AccessKeyID: "AKIDNINA", SecretAccessKey: "s", Status: "Active", CreateDate: time.Now().UTC(),
+	}); err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("CreateAccessKey: %v", err)
+	}
+
+	first := time.Date(2026, 8, 2, 9, 30, 0, 0, time.UTC)
+	if err := store.RecordAccessKeyUsage(ctx, "AKIDNINA", "s3", "us-east-1", first); err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("RecordAccessKeyUsage: %v", err)
+	}
+	if err := store.RecordAccessKeyUsage(ctx, "AKIDNINA", "s3", "us-east-1", first.Add(time.Second)); err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("RecordAccessKeyUsage (repeat): %v", err)
+	}
+
+	got, err := store.GetAccessKeyLastUsed(ctx, "AKIDNINA")
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("GetAccessKeyLastUsed: %v", err)
+	}
+	if !got.LastUsedDate.Equal(first) {
+		t.Fatalf("LastUsedDate = %v after a coalesced repeat, want %v", got.LastUsedDate, first)
+	}
+
+	if err := store.RecordAccessKeyUsage(ctx, "AKIDNINA", "iam", "us-east-1", first.Add(time.Second)); err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("RecordAccessKeyUsage (service change): %v", err)
+	}
+	got, err = store.GetAccessKeyLastUsed(ctx, "AKIDNINA")
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("GetAccessKeyLastUsed: %v", err)
+	}
+	if got.ServiceName != "iam" || !got.LastUsedDate.Equal(first.Add(time.Second)) {
+		t.Fatalf("last used = %s at %v, want iam at %v", got.ServiceName, got.LastUsedDate, first.Add(time.Second))
+	}
+
+	if err := store.RecordAccessKeyUsage(ctx, "missing", "s3", "us-east-1", first); !errors.Is(err, iamerr.NoSuchEntityAccessKey("missing")) {
+		t.Fatalf("RecordAccessKeyUsage missing key err = %v, want NoSuchEntity", err)
+	}
+}
+
 func TestInternalStoreRolePolicyCRUD(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
 	dir := t.TempDir()
diff --git a/iamapi/storage/vault.go b/iamapi/storage/vault.go
index 43c377fe..365c0d17 100644
--- a/iamapi/storage/vault.go
+++ b/iamapi/storage/vault.go
@@ -820,10 +820,19 @@ func (s *VaultStore) recordAccessKeyUsage(ctx context.Context, accessKeyID, serv
 		if err != nil {
 			continue
 		}
-		if !slices.ContainsFunc(user.AccessKeys, func(k types.AccessKeyEntry) bool { return k.AccessKeyId == accessKeyID }) {
+		idx := slices.IndexFunc(user.AccessKeys, func(k types.AccessKeyEntry) bool { return k.AccessKeyId == accessKeyID })
+		if idx == -1 {
 			continue
 		}
 
+		// The user was just read, so the redundant-update check costs
+		// nothing here and saves the read-modify-write below on every
+		// request after the first within the coalescing window.
+		key := user.AccessKeys[idx]
+		if !shouldRecordUsage(key.LastUsedDate, key.LastUsedService, key.LastUsedRegion, service, region, when) {
+			return nil
+		}
+
 		_, err = s.withUserCAS(ctx, username, func(u *types.User) error {
 			for i, key := range u.AccessKeys {
 				if key.AccessKeyId == accessKeyID {
@@ -1202,6 +1211,51 @@ func (s *VaultStore) UpdateAssumeRolePolicy(ctx context.Context, input UpdateAss
 	})
 }
 
+// recordRoleUsageTimeout bounds RecordRoleUsage's detached background
+// update, the way recordAccessKeyUsageTimeout does for access keys.
+const recordRoleUsageTimeout = 5 * time.Second
+
+// RecordRoleUsage updates roleName's RoleLastUsed metadata in its own
+// background goroutine, detached from ctx, and always returns nil
+// immediately — for the same reasons RecordAccessKeyUsage does: it runs on
+// the hot path of every request authenticated with a session credential,
+// and the metadata is purely informational, so a Vault round trip (plus a
+// CAS retry loop) must not be charged to the request, and a lost or failed
+// update is only logged.
+func (s *VaultStore) RecordRoleUsage(_ context.Context, roleName, region string, when time.Time) error {
+	go func() {
+		ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(context.Background(), recordRoleUsageTimeout)
+		defer cancel()
+		if err := s.recordRoleUsage(ctx, roleName, region, when); err != nil {
+			debuglogger.Logf("failed to record Vault role last-used metadata for %q: %v", roleName, err)
+		}
+	}()
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (s *VaultStore) recordRoleUsage(ctx context.Context, roleName, region string, when time.Time) error {
+	role, _, err := s.readRoleVersion(roleName)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+
+	// A redundant update is dropped after the read, before the far more
+	// expensive read-modify-write — see shouldRecordUsage.
+	prev, prevRegion := roleLastUsedRecord(*role)
+	if !shouldRecordUsage(prev, "", prevRegion, "", region, when) {
+		return nil
+	}
+
+	_, err = s.withRoleCAS(ctx, roleName, func(role *types.Role) error {
+		role.RoleLastUsed = &types.RoleLastUsed{
+			LastUsedDate: &when,
+			Region:       region,
+		}
+		return nil
+	})
+	return err
+}
+
 func (s *VaultStore) TagRole(ctx context.Context, roleName string, tags []types.Tag) error {
 	_, err := s.withRoleCAS(ctx, roleName, func(role *types.Role) error {
 		merged, err := mergeTags(role.Tags, tags, iamutil.TagKeysFolded)
diff --git a/iamapi/types/role.go b/iamapi/types/role.go
index 2e2bd755..a009ace6 100644
--- a/iamapi/types/role.go
+++ b/iamapi/types/role.go
@@ -33,16 +33,26 @@ type Role struct {
 	Policies                 Policies `xml:"-"` // unused until role inline-policy CRUD exists; see DeleteRole conflict check
 }
 
+// RoleLastUsed reports when, and in which region, a role was last used.
+// LastUsedDate is a pointer so a never-used role renders as the empty
+// <RoleLastUsed></RoleLastUsed> element AWS returns, rather than as a role
+// used at the zero time.
 type RoleLastUsed struct {
-	LastUsedDate time.Time `xml:",omitempty"`
-	Region       string    `xml:",omitempty"`
+	LastUsedDate *time.Time `xml:",omitempty"`
+	Region       string     `xml:",omitempty"`
 }
 
-// EnsureRoleLastUsed defaults RoleLastUsed to a zero value if unset,
-// without clobbering an already-set value.
+// EnsureRoleLastUsed defaults RoleLastUsed to a never-used value if unset,
+// without clobbering an already-set one. A zero LastUsedDate is normalized
+// away to nil: a role stored before last-used tracking existed persists the
+// zero time, which must still report as never used.
 func (r *Role) EnsureRoleLastUsed() {
 	if r.RoleLastUsed == nil {
 		r.RoleLastUsed = &RoleLastUsed{}
+		return
+	}
+	if r.RoleLastUsed.LastUsedDate != nil && r.RoleLastUsed.LastUsedDate.IsZero() {
+		r.RoleLastUsed.LastUsedDate = nil
 	}
 }
 
diff --git a/runoidctests.sh b/runoidctests.sh
index d24ce1bd..3124ed82 100755
--- a/runoidctests.sh
+++ b/runoidctests.sh
@@ -95,11 +95,7 @@ echo "Starting the s3 gateway backed by it"
 GW_PID=$!
 wait_for_server "s3 gateway" "http://127.0.0.1:$GW_PORT/healthz" "$GW_PID"
 
-echo "Running the live GitHub OIDC web-identity test"
-./versitygw test -a user -s pass -e "http://127.0.0.1:$IAM_PORT" \
-	IAMAssumeRoleWithWebIdentity_github_oidc_live
-
-echo "Running the s3 assumed-role session access control tests"
+echo "Running the tests that need a real OIDC identity provider"
 ./versitygw test -a user -s pass \
 	-e "http://127.0.0.1:$GW_PORT" \
 	--iam-endpoint "http://127.0.0.1:$IAM_PORT" \
diff --git a/tests/integration/group-tests.go b/tests/integration/group-tests.go
index a4715a51..6baba8d4 100644
--- a/tests/integration/group-tests.go
+++ b/tests/integration/group-tests.go
@@ -1368,6 +1368,7 @@ func TestIAMGetRole(ts *TestState) {
 	ts.Run(IAMGetRole_long_role_name)
 	ts.Run(IAMGetRole_non_existing_role)
 	ts.Run(IAMGetRole_success)
+	ts.Run(IAMGetRole_role_last_used_never_used)
 }
 
 func TestIAMListRoles(ts *TestState) {
@@ -1620,7 +1621,6 @@ func TestIAMAssumeRoleWithWebIdentity(ts *TestState) {
 	ts.Run(IAMAssumeRoleWithWebIdentity_oaud_condition_mismatch)
 	ts.Run(IAMAssumeRoleWithWebIdentity_issuer_trailing_slash_mismatch)
 	ts.Run(IAMAssumeRoleWithWebIdentity_issuer_scheme_mismatch)
-	ts.Run(IAMAssumeRoleWithWebIdentity_github_oidc_live)
 }
 
 func TestIAMGetCallerIdentity(ts *TestState) {
@@ -1737,8 +1737,14 @@ func TestS3IAMAccessControl(ts *TestState) {
 	ts.Run(S3IAMAccessControl_condition_multiple_keys_anded)
 	ts.Run(S3IAMAccessControl_inactive_and_deleted_credentials)
 	ts.Run(S3IAMAccessControl_bucket_policy_unknown_principal_rejected)
+	ts.Run(S3IAMAccessControl_access_key_last_used_records_s3)
 }
 
+// TestS3IAMSessionAccessControl is the one group the OIDC workflow runs, so
+// it carries every test that needs a real, signed ID token — including the
+// IAM/STS-endpoint ones below, which are not S3 access-control tests but
+// have the same GitHub-OIDC prerequisite. Every test here skips itself
+// outside a job that can mint a token.
 func TestS3IAMSessionAccessControl(ts *TestState) {
 	ts.Run(S3IAMSession_role_policy_allows)
 	ts.Run(S3IAMSession_role_without_policy_denied)
@@ -1760,6 +1766,9 @@ func TestS3IAMSessionAccessControl(ts *TestState) {
 	ts.Run(S3IAMSession_delete_objects_authorizes_each_key)
 	ts.Run(S3IAMSession_condition_identity_keys)
 	ts.Run(S3IAMSession_get_caller_identity_matches_s3_principal)
+	ts.Run(S3IAMSession_AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity_github_oidc_live)
+	ts.Run(S3IAMSession_GetRole_role_last_used_recorded)
+	ts.Run(S3IAMSession_role_last_used_records_s3)
 }
 
 func TestIAM(ts *TestState) {
@@ -2136,6 +2145,9 @@ func GetIntTests() IntTests {
 		"S3IAMSession_role_policy_explicit_deny_wins":                                      S3IAMSession_role_policy_explicit_deny_wins,
 		"S3IAMSession_role_without_policy_denied":                                          S3IAMSession_role_without_policy_denied,
 		"S3IAMSession_role_policy_allows":                                                  S3IAMSession_role_policy_allows,
+		"S3IAMSession_AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity_github_oidc_live":                          S3IAMSession_AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity_github_oidc_live,
+		"S3IAMSession_GetRole_role_last_used_recorded":                                     S3IAMSession_GetRole_role_last_used_recorded,
+		"S3IAMSession_role_last_used_records_s3":                                           S3IAMSession_role_last_used_records_s3,
 		"S3IAMAccessControl_retention_extension_needs_no_bypass":                           S3IAMAccessControl_retention_extension_needs_no_bypass,
 		"S3IAMAccessControl_delete_objects_authorizes_each_key":                            S3IAMAccessControl_delete_objects_authorizes_each_key,
 		"S3IAMAccessControl_delete_objects_version_needs_separate_permission":              S3IAMAccessControl_delete_objects_version_needs_separate_permission,
@@ -2168,6 +2180,7 @@ func GetIntTests() IntTests {
 		"S3IAMAccessControl_condition_multiple_keys_anded":                                 S3IAMAccessControl_condition_multiple_keys_anded,
 		"S3IAMAccessControl_inactive_and_deleted_credentials":                              S3IAMAccessControl_inactive_and_deleted_credentials,
 		"S3IAMAccessControl_bucket_policy_unknown_principal_rejected":                      S3IAMAccessControl_bucket_policy_unknown_principal_rejected,
+		"S3IAMAccessControl_access_key_last_used_records_s3":                               S3IAMAccessControl_access_key_last_used_records_s3,
 		"Authentication_invalid_auth_header":                                               Authentication_invalid_auth_header,
 		"Authentication_unsupported_signature_version":                                     Authentication_unsupported_signature_version,
 		"Authentication_missing_components":                                                Authentication_missing_components,
@@ -2405,6 +2418,7 @@ func GetIntTests() IntTests {
 		"IAMGetRole_long_role_name":                                                        IAMGetRole_long_role_name,
 		"IAMGetRole_non_existing_role":                                                     IAMGetRole_non_existing_role,
 		"IAMGetRole_success":                                                               IAMGetRole_success,
+		"IAMGetRole_role_last_used_never_used":                                             IAMGetRole_role_last_used_never_used,
 		"IAMListRoles_invalid_path_prefix":                                                 IAMListRoles_invalid_path_prefix,
 		"IAMListRoles_long_path_prefix":                                                    IAMListRoles_long_path_prefix,
 		"IAMListRoles_invalid_max_items":                                                   IAMListRoles_invalid_max_items,
@@ -2594,7 +2608,6 @@ func GetIntTests() IntTests {
 		"IAMAssumeRoleWithWebIdentity_oaud_condition_mismatch":                             IAMAssumeRoleWithWebIdentity_oaud_condition_mismatch,
 		"IAMAssumeRoleWithWebIdentity_issuer_trailing_slash_mismatch":                      IAMAssumeRoleWithWebIdentity_issuer_trailing_slash_mismatch,
 		"IAMAssumeRoleWithWebIdentity_issuer_scheme_mismatch":                              IAMAssumeRoleWithWebIdentity_issuer_scheme_mismatch,
-		"IAMAssumeRoleWithWebIdentity_github_oidc_live":                                    IAMAssumeRoleWithWebIdentity_github_oidc_live,
 		"IAMGetCallerIdentity_root_success":                                                IAMGetCallerIdentity_root_success,
 		"IAMGetCallerIdentity_user_success":                                                IAMGetCallerIdentity_user_success,
 		"IAMGetCallerIdentity_unknown_access_key":                                          IAMGetCallerIdentity_unknown_access_key,
diff --git a/tests/integration/iam_assume_role_with_web_identity_github_oidc.go b/tests/integration/iam_assume_role_with_web_identity_github_oidc.go
deleted file mode 100644
index e218702c..00000000
--- a/tests/integration/iam_assume_role_with_web_identity_github_oidc.go
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,263 +0,0 @@
-// Copyright 2026 Versity Software
-// This file is licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0
-// (the "License"); you may not use this file except in compliance
-// with the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
-//
-//   http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-//
-// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing,
-// software distributed under the License is distributed on an
-// "AS IS" BASIS, WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY
-// KIND, either express or implied.  See the License for the
-// specific language governing permissions and limitations
-// under the License.
-
-package integration
-
-import (
-	"context"
-	"encoding/json"
-	"errors"
-	"fmt"
-	"io"
-	"net/http"
-	"net/url"
-	"os"
-
-	"github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/aws"
-	"github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/credentials"
-	"github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/iam"
-	"github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/sts"
-	"github.com/aws/smithy-go"
-)
-
-const (
-	// githubOIDCIssuerURL is GitHub Actions' own OIDC token issuer: a real,
-	// publicly reachable HTTPS endpoint with a CA-issued certificate.
-	githubOIDCIssuerURL = "https://token.actions.githubusercontent.com"
-
-	// githubOIDCTestAudience is deliberately distinct from GitHub's default
-	// audience (which is the caller's own server URL). If this org ever
-	// configures a real cloud-provider role trusting
-	// token.actions.githubusercontent.com for this repo (e.g. for
-	// publishing/deploys), a leaked test token must not be replayable
-	// against that unrelated trust relationship - binding the throwaway
-	// role's trust policy to this audience (instead of GitHub's default)
-	// is what prevents that.
-	githubOIDCTestAudience = "versitygw-integration-tests"
-)
-
-// IAMAssumeRoleWithWebIdentity_github_oidc_live exercises
-// AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity against a REAL external OIDC identity provider —
-// GitHub Actions' own OIDC issuer — end-to-end: discovery-document fetch,
-// JWKS fetch, real RS256 signature verification, claims mapping, and
-// session credential issuance. It's the only web-identity test that does
-// this; every other one in this package uses a fake token that never
-// reaches real signature verification.
-func IAMAssumeRoleWithWebIdentity_github_oidc_live(s *S3Conf) error {
-	testName := "IAMAssumeRoleWithWebIdentity_github_oidc_live"
-
-	reqURL := os.Getenv("ACTIONS_ID_TOKEN_REQUEST_URL")
-	reqToken := os.Getenv("ACTIONS_ID_TOKEN_REQUEST_TOKEN")
-	if reqURL == "" || reqToken == "" {
-		skipF("%v: ACTIONS_ID_TOKEN_REQUEST_URL/ACTIONS_ID_TOKEN_REQUEST_TOKEN not set "+
-			"(expected outside a GitHub Actions job with id-token: write permission)", testName)
-		return nil
-	}
-
-	return iamActionHandler(s, testName, func(client *iam.Client) error {
-		repo := os.Getenv("GITHUB_REPOSITORY")
-		if repo == "" {
-			return fmt.Errorf("GITHUB_REPOSITORY is not set, but ACTIONS_ID_TOKEN_REQUEST_URL/TOKEN are - unexpected environment")
-		}
-
-		roleName, roleArn, cleanup, err := createGitHubOIDCTrust(client, repo)
-		if err != nil {
-			return err
-		}
-		defer cleanup()
-
-		token, err := fetchGitHubIDToken(reqURL, reqToken, githubOIDCTestAudience)
-		if err != nil {
-			return err
-		}
-
-		const sessionName = "github-oidc-live"
-		assumeOut, err := assumeRoleWithWebIdentity(s, roleArn, sessionName, token, 0)
-		if err != nil {
-			// checkIAMApiErr-style wrapping isn't used here since a live
-			// AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity SDK error carries no token material
-			// of its own to guard against - it's the request we build
-			// (never printed) and GitHub's response (never printed either,
-			// see fetchGitHubIDToken) that could leak the token.
-			return fmt.Errorf("AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity: %w", err)
-		}
-		if assumeOut.Credentials == nil {
-			return fmt.Errorf("expected Credentials in AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity response")
-		}
-		accessKeyID := aws.ToString(assumeOut.Credentials.AccessKeyId)
-		secretAccessKey := aws.ToString(assumeOut.Credentials.SecretAccessKey)
-		sessionToken := aws.ToString(assumeOut.Credentials.SessionToken)
-		if accessKeyID == "" || secretAccessKey == "" || sessionToken == "" {
-			return fmt.Errorf("expected a full AccessKeyId/SecretAccessKey/SessionToken triple in AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity response")
-		}
-
-		wantArn := fmt.Sprintf("arn:aws:sts::000000000000:assumed-role/%s/%s", roleName, sessionName)
-		if aws.ToString(assumeOut.AssumedRoleUser.Arn) != wantArn {
-			return fmt.Errorf("expected AssumedRoleUser.Arn %q, instead got %q", wantArn, aws.ToString(assumeOut.AssumedRoleUser.Arn))
-		}
-
-		// A follow-up call authenticated with the session credentials
-		// AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity just issued proves the whole chain -
-		// discovery, JWKS, signature verification, claims mapping, and
-		// session creds - actually works, not just that a 200 came back.
-		callerOut, err := getCallerIdentityWithSessionCreds(*s, accessKeyID, secretAccessKey, sessionToken)
-		if err != nil {
-			return fmt.Errorf("GetCallerIdentity with assumed-role session credentials: %w", err)
-		}
-		if aws.ToString(callerOut.Arn) != wantArn {
-			return fmt.Errorf("GetCallerIdentity: expected Arn %q, instead got %q", wantArn, aws.ToString(callerOut.Arn))
-		}
-		return nil
-	})
-}
-
-// createGitHubOIDCTrust registers a throwaway OIDC provider for GitHub
-// Actions' own issuer (ThumbprintList omitted, exercising
-// CreateOpenIDConnectProvider's autofetch-and-CA-verify path against a real
-// publicly reachable HTTPS endpoint instead of thumbprint pinning) and a
-// throwaway role trusting it, returning the role's name, its ARN, and a
-// cleanup func that removes both unconditionally.
-//
-// The trust policy's Condition requires both:
-//   - the effective audience to equal githubOIDCTestAudience (not GitHub's
-//     default audience - see that constant's doc comment), and
-//   - the sub claim to match "repo:<repo>:*".
-//
-// The sub match is a repo-wide wildcard rather than pinning an exact
-// ref/event suffix: GitHub's sub claim differs by trigger and branch (e.g.
-// "repo:o/r:pull_request" for a pull_request event vs.
-// "repo:o/r:ref:refs/heads/main" for a push to main), and pinning one exact
-// form would make this test fail depending on how it was triggered. That
-// tradeoff only holds because this role is created and deleted within a
-// single test run - the same repo-wide wildcard left in a real production
-// trust policy would grant every workflow run in the repo, on any branch,
-// the same trust, which is far too broad outside this throwaway context.
-func createGitHubOIDCTrust(client *iam.Client, repo string) (roleName, roleArn string, cleanup func(), err error) {
-	// The provider is keyed by URL alone — a second CreateOpenIDConnectProvider
-	// for the same githubOIDCIssuerURL fails with EntityAlreadyExists, same as
-	// real AWS. Some tests mint more than one session (and so call this more
-	// than once) within a single run, so a provider left by an earlier call
-	// that hasn't been cleaned up yet is expected, not a leak: reuse it rather
-	// than failing, and only this call's cleanup deletes it if this call is
-	// the one that actually created it.
-	ownsProvider := true
-	out, err := createOIDCProvider(client, &iam.CreateOpenIDConnectProviderInput{
-		Url:          aws.String(githubOIDCIssuerURL),
-		ClientIDList: []string{githubOIDCTestAudience},
-	})
-	var providerArn string
-	if err != nil {
-		var ae smithy.APIError
-		if !errors.As(err, &ae) || ae.ErrorCode() != "EntityAlreadyExists" {
-			return "", "", nil, fmt.Errorf("create GitHub OIDC provider: %w", err)
-		}
-		ownsProvider = false
-		providerArn = oidcProviderArn(githubOIDCIssuerURL)
-	} else {
-		providerArn = aws.ToString(out.OpenIDConnectProviderArn)
-	}
-
-	host := trimProviderScheme(githubOIDCIssuerURL)
-	roleName = "github-oidc-" + genRandString(12)
-	trust := fmt.Sprintf(`{"Version":"2012-10-17","Statement":[{"Effect":"Allow","Principal":{"Federated":%q},"Action":"sts:AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity",`+
-		`"Condition":{"StringEquals":{"%s:aud":%q},"StringLike":{"%s:sub":%q}}}]}`,
-		providerArn, host, githubOIDCTestAudience, host, "repo:"+repo+":*")
-	if _, err := createIAMRole(client, &iam.CreateRoleInput{RoleName: &roleName, AssumeRolePolicyDocument: &trust}); err != nil {
-		if ownsProvider {
-			deleteOIDCProvider(client, providerArn)
-		}
-		return "", "", nil, fmt.Errorf("create GitHub OIDC trust role: %w", err)
-	}
-
-	roleArn = "arn:aws:iam::000000000000:role/" + roleName
-	cleanup = func() {
-		deleteIAMRole(client, roleName)
-		if ownsProvider {
-			deleteOIDCProvider(client, providerArn)
-		}
-	}
-	return roleName, roleArn, cleanup, nil
-}
-
-// githubIDTokenResponse is the JSON body GitHub's runtime ID-token endpoint
-// returns: {"value": "<jwt>", "count": <n>}. Only value is needed here.
-type githubIDTokenResponse struct {
-	Value string `json:"value"`
-}
-
-// fetchGitHubIDToken fetches a real, signed OIDC ID token for audience from
-// GitHub Actions' runtime token endpoint (requestURL/requestToken are
-// ACTIONS_ID_TOKEN_REQUEST_URL/ACTIONS_ID_TOKEN_REQUEST_TOKEN, only present
-// inside a GitHub Actions job with id-token: write permission).
-//
-// The returned token is a real, unmasked bearer credential - unlike a
-// secrets.* value, GitHub does not scrub it from logs automatically since it
-// never appears in the workflow YAML. Every error path here is deliberately
-// built from fixed strings and status codes only, never from the response
-// body or the request's Authorization header, so a failure here can never
-// leak the token into CI output.
-func fetchGitHubIDToken(requestURL, requestToken, audience string) (string, error) {
-	parsed, err := url.Parse(requestURL)
-	if err != nil {
-		return "", fmt.Errorf("parse ACTIONS_ID_TOKEN_REQUEST_URL: invalid URL")
-	}
-	q := parsed.Query()
-	q.Set("audience", audience)
-	parsed.RawQuery = q.Encode()
-
-	ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(context.Background(), shortTimeout)
-	defer cancel()
-	req, err := http.NewRequestWithContext(ctx, http.MethodGet, parsed.String(), nil)
-	if err != nil {
-		return "", fmt.Errorf("build GitHub OIDC token request: %w", err)
-	}
-	req.Header.Set("Authorization", "Bearer "+requestToken)
-	req.Header.Set("Accept", "application/json; api-version=2.0")
-
-	resp, err := http.DefaultClient.Do(req)
-	if err != nil {
-		return "", fmt.Errorf("fetch GitHub OIDC token: request failed")
-	}
-	defer resp.Body.Close()
-
-	body, err := io.ReadAll(io.LimitReader(resp.Body, 1<<20))
-	if err != nil {
-		return "", fmt.Errorf("read GitHub OIDC token response: failed after status %d", resp.StatusCode)
-	}
-	if resp.StatusCode != http.StatusOK {
-		return "", fmt.Errorf("GitHub OIDC token endpoint returned status %d", resp.StatusCode)
-	}
-
-	var out githubIDTokenResponse
-	if err := json.Unmarshal(body, &out); err != nil {
-		return "", fmt.Errorf("parse GitHub OIDC token response: malformed JSON")
-	}
-	if out.Value == "" {
-		return "", fmt.Errorf("GitHub OIDC token endpoint returned an empty token value")
-	}
-	return out.Value, nil
-}
-
-// getCallerIdentityWithSessionCreds calls GetCallerIdentity authenticated
-// with a full access/secret/session-token triple.
-func getCallerIdentityWithSessionCreds(cfg S3Conf, access, secret, token string) (*sts.GetCallerIdentityOutput, error) {
-	cfg.awsID = access
-	cfg.awsSecret = secret
-	stsCfg := cfg.iamConfig()
-	stsCfg.Credentials = credentials.NewStaticCredentialsProvider(access, secret, token)
-
-	ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(context.Background(), shortTimeout)
-	defer cancel()
-	return sts.NewFromConfig(stsCfg).GetCallerIdentity(ctx, &sts.GetCallerIdentityInput{})
-}
diff --git a/tests/integration/iam_create_role.go b/tests/integration/iam_create_role.go
index 6bddf576..e404179b 100644
--- a/tests/integration/iam_create_role.go
+++ b/tests/integration/iam_create_role.go
@@ -415,8 +415,8 @@ func checkRoleFields(operation string, role *iamtypes.Role, roleName, path, desc
 	if gotDocument != wantDocument {
 		return fmt.Errorf("expected assume role policy document %q, instead got %q", wantDocument, gotDocument)
 	}
-	if role.RoleLastUsed == nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("expected role RoleLastUsed to be non-nil (empty element)")
+	if err := checkRoleNeverUsed(role.RoleLastUsed); err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("%s: %w", operation, err)
 	}
 	if expectTags {
 		if len(role.Tags) != 1 || aws.ToString(role.Tags[0].Key) != "env" || aws.ToString(role.Tags[0].Value) != "test" {
diff --git a/tests/integration/iam_get_role.go b/tests/integration/iam_get_role.go
index 9d7aa07c..e6f8b12f 100644
--- a/tests/integration/iam_get_role.go
+++ b/tests/integration/iam_get_role.go
@@ -106,6 +106,39 @@ func IAMGetRole_success(s *S3Conf) error {
 	})
 }
 
+// IAMGetRole_role_last_used_never_used confirms a role nobody has assumed
+// reports the empty RoleLastUsed element — present, but carrying neither a
+// date nor a region, exactly as real IAM answers for a never-used role.
+func IAMGetRole_role_last_used_never_used(s *S3Conf) error {
+	testName := "IAMGetRole_role_last_used_never_used"
+	return iamActionHandler(s, testName, func(client *iam.Client) error {
+		roleName := newIAMRoleName()
+		if _, err := createIAMRole(client, &iam.CreateRoleInput{
+			RoleName:                 &roleName,
+			AssumeRolePolicyDocument: aws.String(validTrustPolicyDocument),
+		}); err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+
+		out, err := getIAMRole(client, roleName)
+		checkErr := func() error {
+			if err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+			if out.Role == nil {
+				return fmt.Errorf("expected GetRole to return a role")
+			}
+			return checkRoleNeverUsed(out.Role.RoleLastUsed)
+		}()
+
+		deleteErr := deleteIAMRole(client, roleName)
+		if checkErr != nil {
+			return checkErr
+		}
+		return deleteErr
+	})
+}
+
 func getIAMRole(client *iam.Client, roleName string) (*iam.GetRoleOutput, error) {
 	ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(context.Background(), shortTimeout)
 	defer cancel()
@@ -120,3 +153,19 @@ func checkGetRoleOutput(out *iam.GetRoleOutput, roleName, path, description stri
 	requestID, hasRequestID := awsmiddleware.GetRequestIDMetadata(out.ResultMetadata)
 	return checkRoleFields("GetRole", out.Role, roleName, path, description, maxSessionDuration, wantDocument, expectTags, requestID, hasRequestID)
 }
+
+// checkRoleNeverUsed asserts lastUsed is the empty element real IAM returns
+// for a role that has never been used: present, but carrying neither a date
+// nor a region.
+func checkRoleNeverUsed(lastUsed *iamtypes.RoleLastUsed) error {
+	if lastUsed == nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("expected role RoleLastUsed to be non-nil (empty element)")
+	}
+	if lastUsed.LastUsedDate != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("expected no role last used date, instead got %v", *lastUsed.LastUsedDate)
+	}
+	if aws.ToString(lastUsed.Region) != "" {
+		return fmt.Errorf("expected no role last used region, instead got %q", aws.ToString(lastUsed.Region))
+	}
+	return nil
+}
diff --git a/tests/integration/s3_iam_access_control.go b/tests/integration/s3_iam_access_control.go
index d9ea5f2f..8a47610a 100644
--- a/tests/integration/s3_iam_access_control.go
+++ b/tests/integration/s3_iam_access_control.go
@@ -1902,6 +1902,62 @@ func S3IAMAccessControl_bucket_policy_unknown_principal_rejected(s *S3Conf) erro
 	})
 }
 
+// S3IAMAccessControl_access_key_last_used_records_s3 covers last-used
+// tracking for the S3 data plane: an IAM user's S3 request is recorded
+// against the access key that signed it, with the "s3" service name and the
+// gateway's region — neither of which the IAM control plane can produce.
+func S3IAMAccessControl_access_key_last_used_records_s3(s *S3Conf) error {
+	testName := "S3IAMAccessControl_access_key_last_used_records_s3"
+	return s3IAMActionHandler(s, testName, func(root *iam.Client, bucket string) error {
+		user, cleanup, err := newS3IAMUser(root, s, map[string]string{
+			"p": policyDoc(accessStatement{
+				Effect: "Allow", Action: actS3ListBucket, Resource: []string{bucketArn(bucket)},
+			}),
+		})
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		defer cleanup()
+
+		accessKeyID := user.conf.awsID
+		before, err := getIAMAccessKeyLastUsed(root, accessKeyID)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		if before.AccessKeyLastUsed.LastUsedDate != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("expected a freshly created access key to be unused, instead got %v", before.AccessKeyLastUsed.LastUsedDate)
+		}
+
+		start := time.Now().UTC().Add(-time.Second)
+		ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(context.Background(), shortTimeout)
+		_, err = user.client.ListObjectsV2(ctx, &s3.ListObjectsV2Input{Bucket: &bucket})
+		cancel()
+		if err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("expected ListObjects to be allowed by the identity policy: %w", err)
+		}
+
+		after, err := getIAMAccessKeyLastUsed(root, accessKeyID)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		lastUsed := after.AccessKeyLastUsed
+		if lastUsed.LastUsedDate == nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("expected the s3 request to record an access key last used date")
+		}
+		if lastUsed.LastUsedDate.Before(start) {
+			return fmt.Errorf("expected access key last used date to be at or after %v, instead got %v", start, *lastUsed.LastUsedDate)
+		}
+		if aws.ToString(lastUsed.ServiceName) != "s3" {
+			return fmt.Errorf("expected access key last used service name to be %q, instead got %q", "s3", aws.ToString(lastUsed.ServiceName))
+		}
+		if aws.ToString(lastUsed.Region) != s.awsRegion {
+			return fmt.Errorf("expected access key last used region to be %q, instead got %q", s.awsRegion, aws.ToString(lastUsed.Region))
+		}
+
+		return nil
+	})
+}
+
 // containsBucket reports whether buckets names bucket, so a listing can be
 // asserted without depending on what else other tests left behind.
 func containsBucket(buckets []types.Bucket, bucket string) bool {
diff --git a/tests/integration/s3_iam_session_access_control.go b/tests/integration/s3_iam_session_access_control.go
index 1b2a5da6..74a51739 100644
--- a/tests/integration/s3_iam_session_access_control.go
+++ b/tests/integration/s3_iam_session_access_control.go
@@ -18,7 +18,9 @@ import (
 	"context"
 	"fmt"
 	"net/http"
+	"os"
 	"strings"
+	"time"
 
 	"github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/aws"
 	"github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/iam"
@@ -791,3 +793,241 @@ func S3IAMSession_get_caller_identity_matches_s3_principal(s *S3Conf) error {
 		return checkApiErr(err, wantImplicitDeny(session.arn, actS3GetObject, objectArn(bucket, "obj")))
 	})
 }
+
+// S3IAMSession_AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity_github_oidc_live exercises
+// AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity against a REAL external OIDC identity provider —
+// GitHub Actions' own OIDC issuer — end-to-end: discovery-document fetch,
+// JWKS fetch, real RS256 signature verification, claims mapping, and
+// session credential issuance. It's the only web-identity test that does
+// this; every other one in this package uses a fake token that never
+// reaches real signature verification.
+func S3IAMSession_AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity_github_oidc_live(s *S3Conf) error {
+	testName := "S3IAMSession_AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity_github_oidc_live"
+
+	reqURL := os.Getenv("ACTIONS_ID_TOKEN_REQUEST_URL")
+	reqToken := os.Getenv("ACTIONS_ID_TOKEN_REQUEST_TOKEN")
+	if reqURL == "" || reqToken == "" {
+		skipF("%v: ACTIONS_ID_TOKEN_REQUEST_URL/ACTIONS_ID_TOKEN_REQUEST_TOKEN not set "+
+			"(expected outside a GitHub Actions job with id-token: write permission)", testName)
+		return nil
+	}
+
+	return iamActionHandler(s, testName, func(client *iam.Client) error {
+		repo := os.Getenv("GITHUB_REPOSITORY")
+		if repo == "" {
+			return fmt.Errorf("GITHUB_REPOSITORY is not set, but ACTIONS_ID_TOKEN_REQUEST_URL/TOKEN are - unexpected environment")
+		}
+
+		roleName, roleArn, cleanup, err := createGitHubOIDCTrust(client, repo)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		defer cleanup()
+
+		token, err := fetchGitHubIDToken(reqURL, reqToken, githubOIDCTestAudience)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+
+		const sessionName = "github-oidc-live"
+		assumeOut, err := assumeRoleWithWebIdentity(s, roleArn, sessionName, token, 0)
+		if err != nil {
+			// checkIAMApiErr-style wrapping isn't used here since a live
+			// AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity SDK error carries no token material
+			// of its own to guard against - it's the request we build
+			// (never printed) and GitHub's response (never printed either,
+			// see fetchGitHubIDToken) that could leak the token.
+			return fmt.Errorf("AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity: %w", err)
+		}
+		if assumeOut.Credentials == nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("expected Credentials in AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity response")
+		}
+		accessKeyID := aws.ToString(assumeOut.Credentials.AccessKeyId)
+		secretAccessKey := aws.ToString(assumeOut.Credentials.SecretAccessKey)
+		sessionToken := aws.ToString(assumeOut.Credentials.SessionToken)
+		if accessKeyID == "" || secretAccessKey == "" || sessionToken == "" {
+			return fmt.Errorf("expected a full AccessKeyId/SecretAccessKey/SessionToken triple in AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity response")
+		}
+
+		wantArn := fmt.Sprintf("arn:aws:sts::000000000000:assumed-role/%s/%s", roleName, sessionName)
+		if aws.ToString(assumeOut.AssumedRoleUser.Arn) != wantArn {
+			return fmt.Errorf("expected AssumedRoleUser.Arn %q, instead got %q", wantArn, aws.ToString(assumeOut.AssumedRoleUser.Arn))
+		}
+
+		// A follow-up call authenticated with the session credentials
+		// AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity just issued proves the whole chain -
+		// discovery, JWKS, signature verification, claims mapping, and
+		// session creds - actually works, not just that a 200 came back.
+		callerOut, err := getCallerIdentityWithSessionCreds(*s, accessKeyID, secretAccessKey, sessionToken)
+		if err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("GetCallerIdentity with assumed-role session credentials: %w", err)
+		}
+		if aws.ToString(callerOut.Arn) != wantArn {
+			return fmt.Errorf("GetCallerIdentity: expected Arn %q, instead got %q", wantArn, aws.ToString(callerOut.Arn))
+		}
+		return nil
+	})
+}
+
+// S3IAMSession_GetRole_role_last_used_recorded exercises role last-used tracking
+// end-to-end: a role assumed with a real GitHub Actions OIDC token, then
+// used — a request authenticated with the session credentials that assume
+// issued — records that use as GetRole's RoleLastUsed.
+//
+// Like every other session test, it needs a genuine ID token, so it runs
+// only inside the workflow that can mint one and skips itself everywhere
+// else.
+func S3IAMSession_GetRole_role_last_used_recorded(s *S3Conf) error {
+	testName := "S3IAMSession_GetRole_role_last_used_recorded"
+	token, ok := gitHubOIDCToken()
+	if !ok {
+		skipF("%v: %v", testName, gitHubOIDCSkipReason)
+		return nil
+	}
+
+	return iamActionHandler(s, testName, func(client *iam.Client) error {
+		repo := os.Getenv("GITHUB_REPOSITORY")
+		if repo == "" {
+			return fmt.Errorf("GITHUB_REPOSITORY is not set, but the OIDC token request variables are - unexpected environment")
+		}
+
+		roleName, roleArn, cleanup, err := createGitHubOIDCTrust(client, repo)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		defer cleanup()
+
+		assumeOut, err := assumeRoleWithWebIdentity(s, roleArn, "role-last-used", token, 0)
+		if err != nil {
+			// The error is not wrapped with the request or response, either
+			// of which could carry the ID token - see the same reasoning in
+			// IAMAssumeRoleWithWebIdentity_github_oidc_live.
+			return fmt.Errorf("AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity: %w", err)
+		}
+		if assumeOut.Credentials == nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("expected Credentials in AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity response")
+		}
+
+		// Assuming a role is not itself a use of it: the role stays
+		// never-used until a request actually authenticates as the session.
+		out, err := getIAMRole(client, roleName)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		if out.Role == nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("expected GetRole to return a role")
+		}
+		if err := checkRoleNeverUsed(out.Role.RoleLastUsed); err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("after AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity, before any use: %w", err)
+		}
+
+		before := time.Now().UTC().Add(-time.Second)
+		if _, err := getCallerIdentityWithSessionCreds(*s,
+			aws.ToString(assumeOut.Credentials.AccessKeyId),
+			aws.ToString(assumeOut.Credentials.SecretAccessKey),
+			aws.ToString(assumeOut.Credentials.SessionToken)); err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("GetCallerIdentity with assumed-role session credentials: %w", err)
+		}
+
+		out, err = getIAMRole(client, roleName)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		if out.Role == nil || out.Role.RoleLastUsed == nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("expected GetRole to return a role with a RoleLastUsed element")
+		}
+		lastUsed := out.Role.RoleLastUsed
+		if lastUsed.LastUsedDate == nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("expected a role last used date after a session-authenticated request")
+		}
+		if lastUsed.LastUsedDate.Before(before) {
+			return fmt.Errorf("expected role last used date to be at or after %v, instead got %v", before, *lastUsed.LastUsedDate)
+		}
+		if aws.ToString(lastUsed.Region) != iamAuthRegion {
+			return fmt.Errorf("expected role last used region to be %q, instead got %q", iamAuthRegion, aws.ToString(lastUsed.Region))
+		}
+
+		// ListRoles omits RoleLastUsed from every entry — the list/get
+		// asymmetry other tests only ever see on never-used roles, where a
+		// leaked element would be empty anyway.
+		list, err := listIAMRoles(client, &iam.ListRolesInput{MaxItems: aws.Int32(1000)})
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		found := false
+		for _, role := range list.Roles {
+			if aws.ToString(role.RoleName) != roleName {
+				continue
+			}
+			found = true
+			if role.RoleLastUsed != nil {
+				return fmt.Errorf("expected ListRoles RoleLastUsed to be nil for a used role, instead got %#v", role.RoleLastUsed)
+			}
+		}
+		if !found {
+			return fmt.Errorf("expected ListRoles to return the used role %q", roleName)
+		}
+
+		return nil
+	})
+}
+
+// S3IAMSession_role_last_used_records_s3 is the same for an assumed-role
+// session: the role's RoleLastUsed reports the S3 request its temporary
+// credentials made, which — unlike an access key — is the only place that
+// use is visible at all.
+func S3IAMSession_role_last_used_records_s3(s *S3Conf) error {
+	testName := "S3IAMSession_role_last_used_records_s3"
+	return s3IAMSessionActionHandler(s, testName, func(root *iam.Client, bucket string) error {
+		session, cleanup, err := newGitHubSession(root, s, map[string]string{
+			"p": policyDoc(accessStatement{
+				Effect: "Allow", Action: actS3ListBucket, Resource: []string{bucketArn(bucket)},
+			}),
+		}, "")
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		defer cleanup()
+
+		// The role was just assumed, and assuming is not using: nothing is
+		// recorded until a request authenticates as the session.
+		before, err := getIAMRole(root, session.name)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		if before.Role == nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("expected GetRole to return a role")
+		}
+		if err := checkRoleNeverUsed(before.Role.RoleLastUsed); err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("after AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity, before any s3 request: %w", err)
+		}
+
+		start := time.Now().UTC().Add(-time.Second)
+		ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(context.Background(), shortTimeout)
+		_, err = session.client.ListObjectsV2(ctx, &s3.ListObjectsV2Input{Bucket: &bucket})
+		cancel()
+		if err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("expected ListObjects to be allowed by the role policy: %w", err)
+		}
+
+		after, err := getIAMRole(root, session.name)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		if after.Role == nil || after.Role.RoleLastUsed == nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("expected GetRole to return a role with a RoleLastUsed element")
+		}
+		lastUsed := after.Role.RoleLastUsed
+		if lastUsed.LastUsedDate == nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("expected the s3 request to record a role last used date")
+		}
+		if lastUsed.LastUsedDate.Before(start) {
+			return fmt.Errorf("expected role last used date to be at or after %v, instead got %v", start, *lastUsed.LastUsedDate)
+		}
+		if aws.ToString(lastUsed.Region) != s.awsRegion {
+			return fmt.Errorf("expected role last used region to be %q, instead got %q", s.awsRegion, aws.ToString(lastUsed.Region))
+		}
+
+		return nil
+	})
+}
diff --git a/tests/integration/s3_iam_utils.go b/tests/integration/s3_iam_utils.go
index 358ed7f0..1c990410 100644
--- a/tests/integration/s3_iam_utils.go
+++ b/tests/integration/s3_iam_utils.go
@@ -17,7 +17,11 @@ package integration
 import (
 	"context"
 	"encoding/json"
+	"errors"
 	"fmt"
+	"io"
+	"net/http"
+	"net/url"
 	"os"
 	"strings"
 	"sync"
@@ -29,6 +33,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/s3"
 	"github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/s3/types"
 	"github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/sts"
+	"github.com/aws/smithy-go"
 	"github.com/versity/versitygw/s3err"
 )
 
@@ -43,6 +48,22 @@ const (
 	actS3BypassGovernance    = "s3:BypassGovernanceRetention"
 )
 
+const (
+	// githubOIDCIssuerURL is GitHub Actions' own OIDC token issuer: a real,
+	// publicly reachable HTTPS endpoint with a CA-issued certificate.
+	githubOIDCIssuerURL = "https://token.actions.githubusercontent.com"
+
+	// githubOIDCTestAudience is deliberately distinct from GitHub's default
+	// audience (which is the caller's own server URL). If this org ever
+	// configures a real cloud-provider role trusting
+	// token.actions.githubusercontent.com for this repo (e.g. for
+	// publishing/deploys), a leaked test token must not be replayable
+	// against that unrelated trust relationship - binding the throwaway
+	// role's trust policy to this audience (instead of GitHub's default)
+	// is what prevents that.
+	githubOIDCTestAudience = "versitygw-integration-tests"
+)
+
 // s3IAMPrincipal is an identity that can make S3 requests: an IAM user with
 // a long-term access key, or an assumed-role session with temporary
 // credentials. Tests assert against arn when checking a denial message,
@@ -549,3 +570,143 @@ func deleteObjectBypassingGovernance(client *s3.Client, bucket, key string) erro
 	})
 	return err
 }
+
+// createGitHubOIDCTrust registers a throwaway OIDC provider for GitHub
+// Actions' own issuer (ThumbprintList omitted, exercising
+// CreateOpenIDConnectProvider's autofetch-and-CA-verify path against a real
+// publicly reachable HTTPS endpoint instead of thumbprint pinning) and a
+// throwaway role trusting it, returning the role's name, its ARN, and a
+// cleanup func that removes both unconditionally.
+//
+// The trust policy's Condition requires both:
+//   - the effective audience to equal githubOIDCTestAudience (not GitHub's
+//     default audience - see that constant's doc comment), and
+//   - the sub claim to match "repo:<repo>:*".
+//
+// The sub match is a repo-wide wildcard rather than pinning an exact
+// ref/event suffix: GitHub's sub claim differs by trigger and branch (e.g.
+// "repo:o/r:pull_request" for a pull_request event vs.
+// "repo:o/r:ref:refs/heads/main" for a push to main), and pinning one exact
+// form would make this test fail depending on how it was triggered. That
+// tradeoff only holds because this role is created and deleted within a
+// single test run - the same repo-wide wildcard left in a real production
+// trust policy would grant every workflow run in the repo, on any branch,
+// the same trust, which is far too broad outside this throwaway context.
+func createGitHubOIDCTrust(client *iam.Client, repo string) (roleName, roleArn string, cleanup func(), err error) {
+	// The provider is keyed by URL alone — a second CreateOpenIDConnectProvider
+	// for the same githubOIDCIssuerURL fails with EntityAlreadyExists, same as
+	// real AWS. Some tests mint more than one session (and so call this more
+	// than once) within a single run, so a provider left by an earlier call
+	// that hasn't been cleaned up yet is expected, not a leak: reuse it rather
+	// than failing, and only this call's cleanup deletes it if this call is
+	// the one that actually created it.
+	ownsProvider := true
+	out, err := createOIDCProvider(client, &iam.CreateOpenIDConnectProviderInput{
+		Url:          aws.String(githubOIDCIssuerURL),
+		ClientIDList: []string{githubOIDCTestAudience},
+	})
+	var providerArn string
+	if err != nil {
+		var ae smithy.APIError
+		if !errors.As(err, &ae) || ae.ErrorCode() != "EntityAlreadyExists" {
+			return "", "", nil, fmt.Errorf("create GitHub OIDC provider: %w", err)
+		}
+		ownsProvider = false
+		providerArn = oidcProviderArn(githubOIDCIssuerURL)
+	} else {
+		providerArn = aws.ToString(out.OpenIDConnectProviderArn)
+	}
+
+	host := trimProviderScheme(githubOIDCIssuerURL)
+	roleName = "github-oidc-" + genRandString(12)
+	trust := fmt.Sprintf(`{"Version":"2012-10-17","Statement":[{"Effect":"Allow","Principal":{"Federated":%q},"Action":"sts:AssumeRoleWithWebIdentity",`+
+		`"Condition":{"StringEquals":{"%s:aud":%q},"StringLike":{"%s:sub":%q}}}]}`,
+		providerArn, host, githubOIDCTestAudience, host, "repo:"+repo+":*")
+	if _, err := createIAMRole(client, &iam.CreateRoleInput{RoleName: &roleName, AssumeRolePolicyDocument: &trust}); err != nil {
+		if ownsProvider {
+			deleteOIDCProvider(client, providerArn)
+		}
+		return "", "", nil, fmt.Errorf("create GitHub OIDC trust role: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	roleArn = "arn:aws:iam::000000000000:role/" + roleName
+	cleanup = func() {
+		deleteIAMRole(client, roleName)
+		if ownsProvider {
+			deleteOIDCProvider(client, providerArn)
+		}
+	}
+	return roleName, roleArn, cleanup, nil
+}
+
+// githubIDTokenResponse is the JSON body GitHub's runtime ID-token endpoint
+// returns: {"value": "<jwt>", "count": <n>}. Only value is needed here.
+type githubIDTokenResponse struct {
+	Value string `json:"value"`
+}
+
+// fetchGitHubIDToken fetches a real, signed OIDC ID token for audience from
+// GitHub Actions' runtime token endpoint (requestURL/requestToken are
+// ACTIONS_ID_TOKEN_REQUEST_URL/ACTIONS_ID_TOKEN_REQUEST_TOKEN, only present
+// inside a GitHub Actions job with id-token: write permission).
+//
+// The returned token is a real, unmasked bearer credential - unlike a
+// secrets.* value, GitHub does not scrub it from logs automatically since it
+// never appears in the workflow YAML. Every error path here is deliberately
+// built from fixed strings and status codes only, never from the response
+// body or the request's Authorization header, so a failure here can never
+// leak the token into CI output.
+func fetchGitHubIDToken(requestURL, requestToken, audience string) (string, error) {
+	parsed, err := url.Parse(requestURL)
+	if err != nil {
+		return "", fmt.Errorf("parse ACTIONS_ID_TOKEN_REQUEST_URL: invalid URL")
+	}
+	q := parsed.Query()
+	q.Set("audience", audience)
+	parsed.RawQuery = q.Encode()
+
+	ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(context.Background(), shortTimeout)
+	defer cancel()
+	req, err := http.NewRequestWithContext(ctx, http.MethodGet, parsed.String(), nil)
+	if err != nil {
+		return "", fmt.Errorf("build GitHub OIDC token request: %w", err)
+	}
+	req.Header.Set("Authorization", "Bearer "+requestToken)
+	req.Header.Set("Accept", "application/json; api-version=2.0")
+
+	resp, err := http.DefaultClient.Do(req)
+	if err != nil {
+		return "", fmt.Errorf("fetch GitHub OIDC token: request failed")
+	}
+	defer resp.Body.Close()
+
+	body, err := io.ReadAll(io.LimitReader(resp.Body, 1<<20))
+	if err != nil {
+		return "", fmt.Errorf("read GitHub OIDC token response: failed after status %d", resp.StatusCode)
+	}
+	if resp.StatusCode != http.StatusOK {
+		return "", fmt.Errorf("GitHub OIDC token endpoint returned status %d", resp.StatusCode)
+	}
+
+	var out githubIDTokenResponse
+	if err := json.Unmarshal(body, &out); err != nil {
+		return "", fmt.Errorf("parse GitHub OIDC token response: malformed JSON")
+	}
+	if out.Value == "" {
+		return "", fmt.Errorf("GitHub OIDC token endpoint returned an empty token value")
+	}
+	return out.Value, nil
+}
+
+// getCallerIdentityWithSessionCreds calls GetCallerIdentity authenticated
+// with a full access/secret/session-token triple.
+func getCallerIdentityWithSessionCreds(cfg S3Conf, access, secret, token string) (*sts.GetCallerIdentityOutput, error) {
+	cfg.awsID = access
+	cfg.awsSecret = secret
+	stsCfg := cfg.iamConfig()
+	stsCfg.Credentials = credentials.NewStaticCredentialsProvider(access, secret, token)
+
+	ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(context.Background(), shortTimeout)
+	defer cancel()
+	return sts.NewFromConfig(stsCfg).GetCallerIdentity(ctx, &sts.GetCallerIdentityInput{})
+}